This can be as simple & basic Or advanced & professional.
There are many books, booklets, pamphlets, reprints, even articles describing how to assemble a simple article cut from a basic design which is purchased as a kit from a supplier. There are even sets of instructions available on the internet.
This is fine for the person who just wants to enjoy making some simple article for themselves or a youngster wanting to make a present for their favourite Aunt.
Should however you wish to make something more complicated, earn an income, make a living at a Craft, become a Craftsman/Artisan, Make & design you own range of Quality Leathergoods, then the above brief explanations are not going to help you.
There used to be some advanced college courses available on the subject. The best of these was offered in the UK by Cordwainers College & students came from all over the World for the 2 year Leathergoods Craft Courses & took the City & Guilds Leather Goods examinations.
Sadly those excellent Craft Courses are now defunct due to lack of Government funding for the college & inability of UK students to obtain grants.
The contents of that course provided the entrants with skills comparable with the excellent Craftsmen employed (& taught) by 'Hermes' in France.
So what was on offer that is not available in the simple instructions readily available? Well how to make your own designs, Produce your own patterns, Cut economically from a skin or hide, estimate & cost the amount of leather used, how to hand sew with two needles & a diamond awl (as a professional leather worker or saddler does). using a 'Harness' Iron' Pare leather & make turnovers, Understand & make use of all construction methods, to name just a few of the more advanced techniques.
The old courses have gone but the skills & technology is now available in my Leather Instruction Manuals of which the first 3 are written & available from my site as e-books. There are however 4 more still to write.
So what makes me different & to be more precise capable of providing this high level of knowledge & skills. I worked in the top UK London Companies as a young man just after the war when the UK leathergoods industry was the best in the world, I made leathergoods for top London Stores, Royalty, Film Stars, Heads of State, Worked my way up from a Craftsman to Works Director. Finishing my career as HOD of the college mentioned earlier & was the City & Guilds Moderator for their 470 Leathergoods course.
To read more about all this & view fuller details of the contents of these manuals & the opportunity to acquire these never before published skills & techniques (Some of them were not even available on the college course), then visit my site.
While you are there take advantage of the free downloads also available & feel free to use the massive research & reference section of the site covering every aspect of this diverse subject.
You can find: Leather Suppliers, Museums, Other Leather Books, Leather Organisations, Manufacturers of Finished Leathergoods, Leather Shops Stores & Malls, Leather Importers & Exporters, & Much, Much More.
Treatment of leather is also dealt with & products are available to enable you to care for those expensive leather items you own as well as advice from experts in this field.
The History of Leathergoods is explored for those who are fascinated by past events. I hope this article & a visit to my site will prove useful & enlightening & I am happy to answer any genuine emails on this very ancient craft.
marți, 18 ianuarie 2011
vineri, 26 noiembrie 2010
Discover How Online College Classes Work
It's no secret that more and more people are looking to the internet for a convenient way to further their education. Online classes are a great way to obtain an accredited college degree from home and continue to work a full time job. Many times a student can attend classes from their computer and schedule those classes around their job. Some schools allow the student to login to a class at their convenience. Imagine taking a class from the comfort of your own home and not having to deal with parking problems, child care, lunch, or transportation expenses.
You can also get an online degree from top, accredited online colleges and online schools that may not be available in your local area. An online education is also a great option for non-traditional students, the handicapped, people in remote areas, and people with a full-time job or a schedule that doesn't allow for a traditional education.
Distance education can be delivered in several ways. We will examine two of the many ways education can be delivered via the internet.
One of the most common is through live media. In this type of online classroom, students typically login to a chat room type environment that allows not only for text chat but also live audio chat, similar to many of the popular "instant messaging" programs that are widely used today. The lecture can be heard through the computer speakers or through a set of headphones. The students communicate with the teacher and other students by text chat or simply by talking into a PC microphone. The teacher can also allow students to view him/her in a smaller window on the monitor via a webcam. The lecture can also be recorded and posted to the school website to allow students to listen to the lecture and review the material at a later time according to their schedule, and as many times as necessary. This type of online class makes it necessary to be at the computer at a scheduled time each day.
One advantage to this type of online college classroom environment is the student receives live instruction with structured classes. It is well known that students working within in a structured setting have a higher probability of success of finishing their degree. An obvious disadvantage would be lack of scheduling flexibility.
Another variation of the online classroom setting involves text messages such as email and message boards. Each class may share a group mailbox or a message board system, which becomes the "electronic classroom". The instructor generally posts lectures on the topic of study, posts the assignments, and provides discussion questions related to the topic. The student can view lectures, notes from the instructor and other students, and assigned projects. The student can also post messages or questions to the instructor and other students.
One advantage of this system is 24 hour access to course materials and the ability to work at one's own pace without regard to scheduling. A disadvantage would be lack of direct contact with the instructor.
In both scenarios students are expected to logon to the class site a certain number of days per week. Students also can contact the instructor via e-mail to ask questions or receive answers. When assignments are due, students send them to the instructor online or by email, where they are graded and returned. Students may also have access to their individual performance reports by logging in to a website where that information is posted. Test may also be taken online. Typically, online classes last five to six weeks.
Although the degree of difficulty is the same for the online classroom as in a traditional setting, the internet has broken down many barriers and is providing educational opportunities for people worldwide that were not previously thought possible.
You can also get an online degree from top, accredited online colleges and online schools that may not be available in your local area. An online education is also a great option for non-traditional students, the handicapped, people in remote areas, and people with a full-time job or a schedule that doesn't allow for a traditional education.
Distance education can be delivered in several ways. We will examine two of the many ways education can be delivered via the internet.
One of the most common is through live media. In this type of online classroom, students typically login to a chat room type environment that allows not only for text chat but also live audio chat, similar to many of the popular "instant messaging" programs that are widely used today. The lecture can be heard through the computer speakers or through a set of headphones. The students communicate with the teacher and other students by text chat or simply by talking into a PC microphone. The teacher can also allow students to view him/her in a smaller window on the monitor via a webcam. The lecture can also be recorded and posted to the school website to allow students to listen to the lecture and review the material at a later time according to their schedule, and as many times as necessary. This type of online class makes it necessary to be at the computer at a scheduled time each day.
One advantage to this type of online college classroom environment is the student receives live instruction with structured classes. It is well known that students working within in a structured setting have a higher probability of success of finishing their degree. An obvious disadvantage would be lack of scheduling flexibility.
Another variation of the online classroom setting involves text messages such as email and message boards. Each class may share a group mailbox or a message board system, which becomes the "electronic classroom". The instructor generally posts lectures on the topic of study, posts the assignments, and provides discussion questions related to the topic. The student can view lectures, notes from the instructor and other students, and assigned projects. The student can also post messages or questions to the instructor and other students.
One advantage of this system is 24 hour access to course materials and the ability to work at one's own pace without regard to scheduling. A disadvantage would be lack of direct contact with the instructor.
In both scenarios students are expected to logon to the class site a certain number of days per week. Students also can contact the instructor via e-mail to ask questions or receive answers. When assignments are due, students send them to the instructor online or by email, where they are graded and returned. Students may also have access to their individual performance reports by logging in to a website where that information is posted. Test may also be taken online. Typically, online classes last five to six weeks.
Although the degree of difficulty is the same for the online classroom as in a traditional setting, the internet has broken down many barriers and is providing educational opportunities for people worldwide that were not previously thought possible.
5 Questions To Ask Yourself Before Taking Your First Online Class
Just a few short years ago, the idea of taking a college course through the Internet was something online �techies� considered. Now that people realize how convenience it is to take a class without leaving home, more and more people are taking advantage of using their computer to learn.
But while the technology used for online classes is so simple just about anyone can become an online student, you should ask yourself the following 5 questions first � and save yourself a lot of stress!
1) Do you have the time?
Many people think � mistakenly � that online courses are �easier� than traditional campus classes. But most online classes require regular participation. So, you must have the time to �log on� to your course several times each week, complete the assignments and do your homework, and interact with the other students.
All of this takes time�and, you have to account for the time you would normally have spent in the classroom. If you have the time, you will find taking an online class to be very convenient!
2) Do you have the discipline?
Sure, most online classes don�t require you to be on the computer at a specific time (although some do). So it is up to you to make sure you check in on your class several times each week. With a busy work schedule, sports, hobbies, housework, kids, it�s easy to put your class low on your priority list. And that could mean big trouble when it comes time to get your grade.
It�s not the teacher�s job to remind you to keep up with your work � that�s your responsibility. A simple way to make this work is to create your own schedule, so each week you know exactly when it�s time to �go to class�!
3) Do you have the money?
While there are many free or low-cost online �self help� courses available, college courses almost always cost the same whether you take them on-campus, or online. Colleges have to buy the software, train their faculty, and offer student services after hours � so expecting online courses to be less expensive is not reasonable.
On the other hand, the same financial aid is often available for online classes, just as with campus classes. So, money should not stop any student from furthering their education!
4) Do you have the right technical skills?
Fortunately, you don�t have to be a computer �genius� to take an online class. The technology has become very simple for students and teachers to use, so that students who can �surf the Internet� and use email usually have the necessary technical skills.
Before getting started, the school offering the course should have a sample course, tutorial, or other training to help you determine if there are any skills you need to learn, so you can become a successful online student!
5) Do you have the right computer equipment?
Since most online classes are taught through the Internet, students usually don�t need any special computer equipment. However, most online classes require students to have reliable access to the Internet, an email account (and the knowledge to use it), a word processor (such as Microsoft Word), and antivirus software. Check with your school to see if there are any other requirements.
A high speed internet connection is usually not required, but if instructors use graphics, videos, audio lectures, or other big files, a high speed connection (such as DSL or cable) will help you open the files, and do you work, more efficiently!
Are you ready now to take your first online class? Then it�s time to contact your local college, or search the internet for an online class directory, and see what online courses you can take!
But while the technology used for online classes is so simple just about anyone can become an online student, you should ask yourself the following 5 questions first � and save yourself a lot of stress!
1) Do you have the time?
Many people think � mistakenly � that online courses are �easier� than traditional campus classes. But most online classes require regular participation. So, you must have the time to �log on� to your course several times each week, complete the assignments and do your homework, and interact with the other students.
All of this takes time�and, you have to account for the time you would normally have spent in the classroom. If you have the time, you will find taking an online class to be very convenient!
2) Do you have the discipline?
Sure, most online classes don�t require you to be on the computer at a specific time (although some do). So it is up to you to make sure you check in on your class several times each week. With a busy work schedule, sports, hobbies, housework, kids, it�s easy to put your class low on your priority list. And that could mean big trouble when it comes time to get your grade.
It�s not the teacher�s job to remind you to keep up with your work � that�s your responsibility. A simple way to make this work is to create your own schedule, so each week you know exactly when it�s time to �go to class�!
3) Do you have the money?
While there are many free or low-cost online �self help� courses available, college courses almost always cost the same whether you take them on-campus, or online. Colleges have to buy the software, train their faculty, and offer student services after hours � so expecting online courses to be less expensive is not reasonable.
On the other hand, the same financial aid is often available for online classes, just as with campus classes. So, money should not stop any student from furthering their education!
4) Do you have the right technical skills?
Fortunately, you don�t have to be a computer �genius� to take an online class. The technology has become very simple for students and teachers to use, so that students who can �surf the Internet� and use email usually have the necessary technical skills.
Before getting started, the school offering the course should have a sample course, tutorial, or other training to help you determine if there are any skills you need to learn, so you can become a successful online student!
5) Do you have the right computer equipment?
Since most online classes are taught through the Internet, students usually don�t need any special computer equipment. However, most online classes require students to have reliable access to the Internet, an email account (and the knowledge to use it), a word processor (such as Microsoft Word), and antivirus software. Check with your school to see if there are any other requirements.
A high speed internet connection is usually not required, but if instructors use graphics, videos, audio lectures, or other big files, a high speed connection (such as DSL or cable) will help you open the files, and do you work, more efficiently!
Are you ready now to take your first online class? Then it�s time to contact your local college, or search the internet for an online class directory, and see what online courses you can take!
3 Alternatives For Investing For Your Childs Higher Education Costs
With higher education tuition increasing at double digit year over year percentages an effective saving plan for your kid�s education is becoming much more important than it has been before. Most families will discover that their future higher education costs will be much more than they have saved for their kid�s education. This leaves many kids to be faced with obtaining financial aid to pay for a portion of their college education. The goal of this article is to explore the pros and cons of 4 common investment options when saving for college. This article will also explore why some of these options are better than other when considering a portion of your kid�s education may be funded by financial aid.
529 College Savings Plan: - A 529 college savings plan is a fairly new investment option for college saving. It allows just about anyone to save for college. There is a long list of benefits of a 529 college savings plan, but perhaps the most important is that your earnings grow tax free if you use it for qualified education expenses. Additionally, the maximum amount you can contribute to a 529 plan can go as high as several hundred thousand dollars depending on your State. In the event you do not use the funds for college, you can still withdrawal your earnings, but you will have to pay taxes and a 10% penalty. The penalty will be waived if your child receives a scholarship, or your child becomes disable or dies.
529 plans can typically be purchased through a broker or mutual fund company, but a disadvantage is that investment choices can sometimes be limited. Since qualifying for financial aid is based on a calculation that considers your kids assets, another big benefit of a 529 college savings plan is that the money in the plan is classified as a parents assets so less that 6% of the value counts against your kid�s financial aid eligibility.
Uniform Gifts to Minors Act/Uniform Transfers to Minors Act
(UGMA/UTA Custodial Account): - The benefit of a UMGA/UTA Custodial Account is that there is no limit on the contribution and it is easy to set up at most financial institutions. However, the limitations far outweigh the benefits. The first limitation of a UMGA/UTA Custodial Account is that these types of accounts offer very little tax advantage. If your child is under 14, only the first $800 of income is tax free, the next $800 is taxed at your child�s tax rate and after that there is no tax benefit at all. The other big limitation is that the account has to be set up in your child�s name. As a result, if your child needs financial aid all of the assets will be reviewed at a 35% rate. Therefore, this type of account is not advisable for those who may need financial aid.
Coverdell Education Savings Account (CESA): - A Coverdell Education Savings Account is very similar to a 529 college savings plan. The main difference is that with a Coverdell Education Savings Account you can only contribute $2000 per child and to qualify your adjusted gross income must be less than $110,000 if single and less than $220,000 if married filing jointly. The account is classified as a parent�s asset so less that 6% of the value counts against your kid�s financial aid eligibility.
In the end, parents should consider planning for college to be a highly important process. The above 3 alternatives can make this process much more easy and financially sound.
529 College Savings Plan: - A 529 college savings plan is a fairly new investment option for college saving. It allows just about anyone to save for college. There is a long list of benefits of a 529 college savings plan, but perhaps the most important is that your earnings grow tax free if you use it for qualified education expenses. Additionally, the maximum amount you can contribute to a 529 plan can go as high as several hundred thousand dollars depending on your State. In the event you do not use the funds for college, you can still withdrawal your earnings, but you will have to pay taxes and a 10% penalty. The penalty will be waived if your child receives a scholarship, or your child becomes disable or dies.
529 plans can typically be purchased through a broker or mutual fund company, but a disadvantage is that investment choices can sometimes be limited. Since qualifying for financial aid is based on a calculation that considers your kids assets, another big benefit of a 529 college savings plan is that the money in the plan is classified as a parents assets so less that 6% of the value counts against your kid�s financial aid eligibility.
Uniform Gifts to Minors Act/Uniform Transfers to Minors Act
(UGMA/UTA Custodial Account): - The benefit of a UMGA/UTA Custodial Account is that there is no limit on the contribution and it is easy to set up at most financial institutions. However, the limitations far outweigh the benefits. The first limitation of a UMGA/UTA Custodial Account is that these types of accounts offer very little tax advantage. If your child is under 14, only the first $800 of income is tax free, the next $800 is taxed at your child�s tax rate and after that there is no tax benefit at all. The other big limitation is that the account has to be set up in your child�s name. As a result, if your child needs financial aid all of the assets will be reviewed at a 35% rate. Therefore, this type of account is not advisable for those who may need financial aid.
Coverdell Education Savings Account (CESA): - A Coverdell Education Savings Account is very similar to a 529 college savings plan. The main difference is that with a Coverdell Education Savings Account you can only contribute $2000 per child and to qualify your adjusted gross income must be less than $110,000 if single and less than $220,000 if married filing jointly. The account is classified as a parent�s asset so less that 6% of the value counts against your kid�s financial aid eligibility.
In the end, parents should consider planning for college to be a highly important process. The above 3 alternatives can make this process much more easy and financially sound.
New Website for College Students to Exchange Textbooks and More on Campus
Why pay $100 for a textbook when you can get it for a much lower cost? Why should your campus bookstore rip you off? Ever walk around campus and see a lot of fliers for used textbooks trying not to be sold back at the campus bookstore?
A new website, Campusgrind.com (www.campusgrind.com) has come up with a solution. Here anyone can post a textbook ad for free, and if purchased, can meetup on campus for a quick cash exchange or arrange to have it shipped. This allows students to save money on textbooks and get a higher return for selling them back. For example, your campus bookstore might sell a book for $300 and at the end of the semester buy it back for $100, which is 1/3 of what you payed for the textbook. At CampusGrind.com you can post your textbook for $200, 2/3 of what you payed. This way both the buyer and seller have a much
better deal!
In addition to textbooks, there is also a marketplace where you can post just about anything, from computers, dvds, music, autos, clothes, and much more. The campus meetup and shipping concept is the same as textbooks, and is free as well.
Campusgrind.com is a community of over 3,200 campuses nationwide.
The website allows people to search for friends and classmates and add them to their list of friends. Members are allowed to upload up to twenty photos, create a profile, and browse students, faculty, and alumni around any college in the United States. Anyone is able to post topics in his or her college forum, general forum, or other college forums about almost anything, including travel, love & dating, college life, sports, and more.
The founders are currently working on improving the community.
A new website, Campusgrind.com (www.campusgrind.com) has come up with a solution. Here anyone can post a textbook ad for free, and if purchased, can meetup on campus for a quick cash exchange or arrange to have it shipped. This allows students to save money on textbooks and get a higher return for selling them back. For example, your campus bookstore might sell a book for $300 and at the end of the semester buy it back for $100, which is 1/3 of what you payed for the textbook. At CampusGrind.com you can post your textbook for $200, 2/3 of what you payed. This way both the buyer and seller have a much
better deal!
In addition to textbooks, there is also a marketplace where you can post just about anything, from computers, dvds, music, autos, clothes, and much more. The campus meetup and shipping concept is the same as textbooks, and is free as well.
Campusgrind.com is a community of over 3,200 campuses nationwide.
The website allows people to search for friends and classmates and add them to their list of friends. Members are allowed to upload up to twenty photos, create a profile, and browse students, faculty, and alumni around any college in the United States. Anyone is able to post topics in his or her college forum, general forum, or other college forums about almost anything, including travel, love & dating, college life, sports, and more.
The founders are currently working on improving the community.
Several Tips to Finding the Right School Fast
Searching for a school or college can be a time
consuming and confusing time and knowing which
ones to apply for and then which one to accept can be
difficult ad even a little traumatic. But there are many
ways of minimizing both the time taken and the
confusion involved so that the process is a little less
stressful.
Firstly you need to decide whether you want to attend
school or college in your own area or state, or whether
you are prepared to move to another location; and if so,
how far you are prepared to relocate. Of course, your
test scores may preclude some choice in this matter.
You also need to have some idea of what you can
afford some colleges are more expensive than others
and some offer payment plans and scholarships while
others do not.
Then talk to your current schools career advisor to
seek their counsel and see what they have to say.
They may recommend some schools above others as
they may be more suited to your needs, talents and
situation and overall career ambition.
The next thing to do is get online. There are many web
sites on the Internet where you can enter information,
such as your region, annual cost preference, freshman
year class size preference, preference regarding the
size of the surrounding community, and school type
(public or private) they are then processed in a
database and the site spits out a series of school
recommendations. Other sites offer tips and strategies
for obtaining scholarships and paying for college.
Another web site allows you to register for a SAT
Program test and send the results to various colleges
and scholarship programs.
A Google entry for school/college search will give you
more than 660,000 results. Some results are region or
specialty specific for instance there is a web site
devoted to assisting you to find the right college at
which to complete your MBA. Some sites are quite
possibly not as legitimate or as thorough as others.
There are a myriad to choose from. Which ever school
you choose, using the World Wide Web to guide your
search for a college or school will definitely make it an
easier, less time-consuming and hopefully a far less
confusing task.
consuming and confusing time and knowing which
ones to apply for and then which one to accept can be
difficult ad even a little traumatic. But there are many
ways of minimizing both the time taken and the
confusion involved so that the process is a little less
stressful.
Firstly you need to decide whether you want to attend
school or college in your own area or state, or whether
you are prepared to move to another location; and if so,
how far you are prepared to relocate. Of course, your
test scores may preclude some choice in this matter.
You also need to have some idea of what you can
afford some colleges are more expensive than others
and some offer payment plans and scholarships while
others do not.
Then talk to your current schools career advisor to
seek their counsel and see what they have to say.
They may recommend some schools above others as
they may be more suited to your needs, talents and
situation and overall career ambition.
The next thing to do is get online. There are many web
sites on the Internet where you can enter information,
such as your region, annual cost preference, freshman
year class size preference, preference regarding the
size of the surrounding community, and school type
(public or private) they are then processed in a
database and the site spits out a series of school
recommendations. Other sites offer tips and strategies
for obtaining scholarships and paying for college.
Another web site allows you to register for a SAT
Program test and send the results to various colleges
and scholarship programs.
A Google entry for school/college search will give you
more than 660,000 results. Some results are region or
specialty specific for instance there is a web site
devoted to assisting you to find the right college at
which to complete your MBA. Some sites are quite
possibly not as legitimate or as thorough as others.
There are a myriad to choose from. Which ever school
you choose, using the World Wide Web to guide your
search for a college or school will definitely make it an
easier, less time-consuming and hopefully a far less
confusing task.
The Galileo Conspiracy: 5 Questions Your Science Professors Hope You Never Ask
As a young lad, I took on my first scientific experiment simply because I could. Like most curious youngsters who own walky-talkies, I could only resist for so long the urge to bury one of them (well behind enemy lines) in the bread aisle at the local grocery store, to see what startled shoppers might make of extroverted wheat. This, my first foray into the field of agorology -- the very scientific study of shopping, shoppers and shoppingcarts -- told me just what I needed to know.
Would they simply scurry off, fearing all that is both sourdough and articulate, or might they try to hunt down the source of the taunting loaves? The jovial, phoney French accent that greeted each customer in the aisle proved harder to maintain -- while trying hard not to laugh -- than I had anticipated. In the end, fear of the manager (bigcheesophobia) cut short the data-gathering event, but not before we -- Tony (my assistant) and I -- had learned far too much. We now knew the inside truth about science, kept hidden for many ages: it's a real kick in the pants.
Much time passed, and the California State University (at Hayward) received, and then quite foolishly approved, my application for admission. There I learned that the representatives of "science" bore the right to decide all matters of cultural importance; that scientists could provide the answers we need; and that science is "self-correcting," and so marches forward with unrelenting progress. Just look at the microwave ovens, and the GPS gadgets in our cars. Science carries the badge of authority in all matters of knowledge. Or so the story goes.
But then it happened. I took my first history of science class, and began studying the items that interested me, even if they weren't on the menu. Then came the individual study course in the philosophy of science. By then I had meandered into areas of study best dubbed "plainly unauthorized." Here, I had realized that the science textbook authors (and most of my science professors) had completely -- I believe the scientific term is -- "discombobulated" almost everything they had taught me in my science classes.
Oh, they managed the empirical details in the books well enough. Like motorcycle riders who smile too often, the experts had strained out the empirical gnats with an aggressive and precise toothpick. But conceptual camel-swallowing became the order of the day. In other words, their story of what science actually is, how scientists employ its methods, and what science can actually accomplish -- the whole story surrounding the details -- proved phonier than a well-modulated, French accent in a grocery store.
To help illustrate these well-educated fibs, which I have boiled down to five for the sake of brevity, I have put this section in the shape of a question and answer format. Here sit before the readers eyes THE five questions your science professors hope you never ask.
Question 1. Professor, isn't it true, that when you call a model or theory "true" merely because it makes accurate predictions that you in fact commit the fallacy called "affirming the consequent?"
Answer: You'd better believe it, Bucko. And nearly all scientists do this on a regular basis. Coincidentally enough, so do the textbooks these guys write. "If a mother, then also a woman" seems obvious enough. In logic, this takes the form, "If P, then Q." But reasoning in the reverse direction leads to trouble. "If a woman, then a mother [Q, therefore P]" doesn't ring true at all. Many women do not practice motherhood. Likewise, "If my theory is true, we should find 'Q' to be the case [If P, then Q] does not in any way validate the reverse, "We did find 'Q' to be the case, therefore my model is true [Q, therefore P]."
This is like the man who argues that "If it is bread, it does not talk. It does not in fact talk, therefore it must be bread." Imagine that: science professors make a career of reasoning that poorly, and your sandwich never said a word.
Question #2. Professor, isn't it true that many highly successful theories in the past gained the allegiance of entire scientific communities, only to suffer rejection later as so much molarky by the same group?
Answer: Yes. In fact Dr. Larry Laudan, former chair of the history and philosophy of science department at the University of Pittsburgh, wrote a book (Science and Values) where he catalogued over 30 such theories. He indicated that he could have lengthened his list extensively (and others have done this). These truth-status flip-floppers trounce about like a salmon on deck, where "true yesterday" becomes "false today." Here, truth comes with an expiration date like raspberry yogurt. And who knows, these theories may yet make a comeback -- only to get smoked again (as salmon are want to do).
This tells us that theoretical science shows itself fickle when it comes to truth-telling. In court, they call this "perjury," but let us avoid the unpleasantries of name-calling. One commentator on this problem recently put it quite sublimely in these words: "If the history of science were a single person, it would present to the world just that sort of person we should least want to see driving heavy machinery or carrying sharp objects."
Question #3. Professor, isn't it true that theories considered false today by the scientific majority, as well as in the past, have often turned out to be very useful? And doesn't this show that no established relationship between true theories and useful theories exists?
Answer: Yes, and yes. And this shows from the empirical facts of history that any theory might be highly useful, and yet utterly false, so that it's utility offers no real guide to whether or not it's true. And you guessed it: Dr. Laudan has a long list of these successful-but-false theories too. And he isn't the only one.
Question #4. Isn't it true professor that scientists often resolve the contest between rival theories by choosing the one as "more probably true" which appears either simpler or more elegant than the others, and doesn't this tell against the alleged "objectivity" of what is supposed to be a truth-seeking enterprise, reducing it to the status of a Miss America beauty pageant?
Answer: Yes, but don't tell my wife or she won't let me go to work either.
Question #5. Professor, isn't it true that various scientists working in different fields put to use a wide array of different methods, depending on factors like which field of study they work in, the nature of the claim under question at the moment, and the like? And doesn't this rather abolish the popular myth that anything like "THE" scientific method has ever actually existed?
Answer: Of course. Philosopher of science, Paul Feyerabend at UC Berkeley wrote a book in the late 90's entitled "On Method," which proves just that point. Brain-scanning Neurologists do not do anything like what mechanics do when the latter search to find out how much pollution your car puts out. They use different instruments, and entirely different methods. Some methods involve developing computational models to run different stress-condition scenarios (structural engineers do this), while others amount to sticking a fancy wand up your car's tail pipe.
Conclusion: The heroic model of science -- with scientists in the driver's seat as the keepers of true knowledge -- amounts to a political ploy designed to exalt those with white labcoats as the final arbiters of truth about what kind of what this "really" is. But the kind of reasons scientists (and their textbooks) must invoke to prop up this flimsy mythology make no headway against the empirical facts known to students of the history and philosophy of the sciences. Moreover, if stripped of their technical jargon, and rendered in the common tongue, such half-baked reasons would not earn scientists a passing mark in a second-semester logic course at any decent college.
The way I see it, if you are going to try to fool people, you might as well go all the way, and head for the aisle with the heckling rye.
Would they simply scurry off, fearing all that is both sourdough and articulate, or might they try to hunt down the source of the taunting loaves? The jovial, phoney French accent that greeted each customer in the aisle proved harder to maintain -- while trying hard not to laugh -- than I had anticipated. In the end, fear of the manager (bigcheesophobia) cut short the data-gathering event, but not before we -- Tony (my assistant) and I -- had learned far too much. We now knew the inside truth about science, kept hidden for many ages: it's a real kick in the pants.
Much time passed, and the California State University (at Hayward) received, and then quite foolishly approved, my application for admission. There I learned that the representatives of "science" bore the right to decide all matters of cultural importance; that scientists could provide the answers we need; and that science is "self-correcting," and so marches forward with unrelenting progress. Just look at the microwave ovens, and the GPS gadgets in our cars. Science carries the badge of authority in all matters of knowledge. Or so the story goes.
But then it happened. I took my first history of science class, and began studying the items that interested me, even if they weren't on the menu. Then came the individual study course in the philosophy of science. By then I had meandered into areas of study best dubbed "plainly unauthorized." Here, I had realized that the science textbook authors (and most of my science professors) had completely -- I believe the scientific term is -- "discombobulated" almost everything they had taught me in my science classes.
Oh, they managed the empirical details in the books well enough. Like motorcycle riders who smile too often, the experts had strained out the empirical gnats with an aggressive and precise toothpick. But conceptual camel-swallowing became the order of the day. In other words, their story of what science actually is, how scientists employ its methods, and what science can actually accomplish -- the whole story surrounding the details -- proved phonier than a well-modulated, French accent in a grocery store.
To help illustrate these well-educated fibs, which I have boiled down to five for the sake of brevity, I have put this section in the shape of a question and answer format. Here sit before the readers eyes THE five questions your science professors hope you never ask.
Question 1. Professor, isn't it true, that when you call a model or theory "true" merely because it makes accurate predictions that you in fact commit the fallacy called "affirming the consequent?"
Answer: You'd better believe it, Bucko. And nearly all scientists do this on a regular basis. Coincidentally enough, so do the textbooks these guys write. "If a mother, then also a woman" seems obvious enough. In logic, this takes the form, "If P, then Q." But reasoning in the reverse direction leads to trouble. "If a woman, then a mother [Q, therefore P]" doesn't ring true at all. Many women do not practice motherhood. Likewise, "If my theory is true, we should find 'Q' to be the case [If P, then Q] does not in any way validate the reverse, "We did find 'Q' to be the case, therefore my model is true [Q, therefore P]."
This is like the man who argues that "If it is bread, it does not talk. It does not in fact talk, therefore it must be bread." Imagine that: science professors make a career of reasoning that poorly, and your sandwich never said a word.
Question #2. Professor, isn't it true that many highly successful theories in the past gained the allegiance of entire scientific communities, only to suffer rejection later as so much molarky by the same group?
Answer: Yes. In fact Dr. Larry Laudan, former chair of the history and philosophy of science department at the University of Pittsburgh, wrote a book (Science and Values) where he catalogued over 30 such theories. He indicated that he could have lengthened his list extensively (and others have done this). These truth-status flip-floppers trounce about like a salmon on deck, where "true yesterday" becomes "false today." Here, truth comes with an expiration date like raspberry yogurt. And who knows, these theories may yet make a comeback -- only to get smoked again (as salmon are want to do).
This tells us that theoretical science shows itself fickle when it comes to truth-telling. In court, they call this "perjury," but let us avoid the unpleasantries of name-calling. One commentator on this problem recently put it quite sublimely in these words: "If the history of science were a single person, it would present to the world just that sort of person we should least want to see driving heavy machinery or carrying sharp objects."
Question #3. Professor, isn't it true that theories considered false today by the scientific majority, as well as in the past, have often turned out to be very useful? And doesn't this show that no established relationship between true theories and useful theories exists?
Answer: Yes, and yes. And this shows from the empirical facts of history that any theory might be highly useful, and yet utterly false, so that it's utility offers no real guide to whether or not it's true. And you guessed it: Dr. Laudan has a long list of these successful-but-false theories too. And he isn't the only one.
Question #4. Isn't it true professor that scientists often resolve the contest between rival theories by choosing the one as "more probably true" which appears either simpler or more elegant than the others, and doesn't this tell against the alleged "objectivity" of what is supposed to be a truth-seeking enterprise, reducing it to the status of a Miss America beauty pageant?
Answer: Yes, but don't tell my wife or she won't let me go to work either.
Question #5. Professor, isn't it true that various scientists working in different fields put to use a wide array of different methods, depending on factors like which field of study they work in, the nature of the claim under question at the moment, and the like? And doesn't this rather abolish the popular myth that anything like "THE" scientific method has ever actually existed?
Answer: Of course. Philosopher of science, Paul Feyerabend at UC Berkeley wrote a book in the late 90's entitled "On Method," which proves just that point. Brain-scanning Neurologists do not do anything like what mechanics do when the latter search to find out how much pollution your car puts out. They use different instruments, and entirely different methods. Some methods involve developing computational models to run different stress-condition scenarios (structural engineers do this), while others amount to sticking a fancy wand up your car's tail pipe.
Conclusion: The heroic model of science -- with scientists in the driver's seat as the keepers of true knowledge -- amounts to a political ploy designed to exalt those with white labcoats as the final arbiters of truth about what kind of what this "really" is. But the kind of reasons scientists (and their textbooks) must invoke to prop up this flimsy mythology make no headway against the empirical facts known to students of the history and philosophy of the sciences. Moreover, if stripped of their technical jargon, and rendered in the common tongue, such half-baked reasons would not earn scientists a passing mark in a second-semester logic course at any decent college.
The way I see it, if you are going to try to fool people, you might as well go all the way, and head for the aisle with the heckling rye.
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